How to Use a Relative Clause

Relative clauses are also referred to as adjective clauses. They are used to modify a noun, which is either the subject or the object of a sentence. For example: She is the woman who he met at the party last week. I bought a book which was published in Germany last year. Who he met at the party is a relative clause that describes the subject of the sentence, which is woman. Which was published in Germany describes the object of the verb bought. Intermediate-level English learners need to learn relative clauses to improve their writing skills in order to begin crafting more complex sentences. Relative clauses help connect two separate ideas which might otherwise be expressed in two separate sentences. Examples: That is the school. I went to that school as a boy. That is the school (that) I went to as a boy. Thats a beautiful car over there! Id like to buy that car. Id like to buy that beautiful car over there. How to Use Relative Clauses? Use relative clauses to provide extra information. This information can either define something (defining clause) or provide unnecessary but interesting added information (non-defining clause). Relative clauses can be introduced by: A relative pronoun: who (whom), which, that, whoseNo relative pronounWhere, why, and when instead of a relative pronoun You need to consider the following when deciding which relative pronoun to use: Is the subject or object or possessive of a relative clause?Does it refer to a person or an object?Is the relative clause a defining or non-defining relative clause? Relative clauses are often used in both spoken and written English. There is a tendency to use non-defining relative clauses mostly in written, rather than in spoken, English. The Importance of Defining Relative Clauses The information provided in a defining relative clause is crucial in understanding the meaning of the sentence. Examples:   The woman who lives in apartment number 34 has been arrested.The document that I need has important written at the top. The purpose of a defining relative clause is to clearly define who or what we are talking about. Without this information, it would be difficult to know who or what is meant. Example:  The house is being renovated. In this  case, it is not necessarily clear  which  house is being renovated. Non-Defining Relative Clauses Non-defining relative clauses provide interesting additional information which is not essential to understanding the meaning of the sentence. Example:  Mrs. Jackson, who is very intelligent, lives on the corner. Correct punctuation is essential in non-defining relative clauses. If the non-defining relative clause occurs in the middle of a sentence, a comma is put before the relative pronoun and at the end of the clause. If the non-defining relative clause occurs at the end of a sentence, a comma is put before the relative pronoun. In defining relative clauses, there are no commas. Examples:   Children who play with fire are in great danger of harm.The man who bought all the books by Hemingway has died. Generally,  who  and  which  are more usual in written English, whereas  that  is more usual in speech when referring to things. Relative Pronouns and Defining Relative Clauses Examples:   Thats the boy (who, whom) I invited to the party.Theres the house (that, which) Id like to buy. Relative Pronouns Used as a Possessive Examples:   Hes the man whose car was stolen last week.They were sure to visit the town whose location was little-known. It is preferable to use  that  (not  which) after the following words: all, any(thing), every(thing), few, little, many, much, no(thing), none, some(thing), and after superlatives. When using the  pronoun  to refer to the object,  that  can be omitted. Examples:   It was everything (that) he had ever wanted.There were only a few (that) really interested him. Examples:   Frank Zappa, who was one of the most creative artists in rock n roll, came from California.Olympia, whose name is taken from the Greek language, is the capital of Washington State. Relative Pronouns and Non-Defining Relative Clauses Examples:   Frank invited Janet, who (whom) he had met in Japan, to the party.Peter brought his favorite antique book, which he had found at a flea market, to show his friends. That can never be used in non-defining clauses. Possessive in Non-Defining Relative Clauses Example:   The singer, whose most recent recording has had much success, was signing autographs.The artist, whose name he could not remember, was one of the best he had ever seen. In non-defining relative clauses,  which  can be used to refer to an entire clause. Example:   He came for the weekend wearing only some shorts and a t-shirt, which was a stupid thing to do. After numbers and words like  many, most, neither, and some, we use  of,  before,  whom,  and  which  in non-defining relative clauses.   Example:   Many of those people, most of whom enjoyed their experience, spent at least a year abroad.  Dozens of people had been invited, most of whom I knew.

Analysis Of Online Marketing - 867 Words

Reaching the right people at the right time with the right message is a key goal of online marketing, especially in the increasingly competitive marketplace of healthcare systems (Healthcare Systems, 2014). In order to market your product or service, it is imperative that you tailor your marketing and sales efforts to specifically reach the segment of population that will most likely buy your product or service (MaGee, 2017). It is critical that you first determine or clearly identify your primary market. Unless and until you know your customers, you can’t meet their needs, desires, what they want, where they live and what they can afford. In order to attract patients to a hospital, my target segment would be on the basis of demographic†¦show more content†¦Consumers seek valuable health-related information on the Internet and there is a strong preference to request an appointment online, to receive discounts and also post complaints anonymously. Social media marketing can prove to be a valuable tool in the hands of people knowing how to use it. Social media marketing can be seen as a great opportunity for both individuals and healthcare providers. The last question of the Greece survey was addressed again to the health consumers and aimed to investigate whether their â€Å"final decision would be affected by the information provided on the Internet or by the social media†; 17.2% of the respondents answered positively, 10.2% negatively, and 72.7% positively albeit under the condition that the provider of the information was valid and credible (Koumpouros et al., 2015). Research shows that patients educate themselves by reading at least 10 pieces of content before selecting a physician, so in order to grow your practice you need to become the trusted source of valuable health information and building a loyal audience of readers (webtomed.com). Today, word-of-mouth referrals happen mostly on the social networks such as Facebook andShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Online Marketing872 Words   |  4 Pagesit can be sold in many creative ways, I’ve decided to make my product an online clothing store. I plan to sell my apparel online, because majority of sales in the twenty-first century are being done on an internet domain. According to Cira, the Canadian Internet Registry, by 2019 Canadians will spend approximately nine billion dollars on online commerce (Cira, 2016). I aim to sell wearables because according Cira, 42% of online purchases made in 2013 were clothing based (Cira, 2016). I plan on sellingRead MoreReview and Analysis: Best Practices fo r Online Marketing2489 Words   |  10 PagesAnything but Stupid: Online Marketing at Stupid.com Home of the stupidest gifts on planet earth. Stupid.com Introduction In an increasingly competitive globalized marketplace, e-businesses of all types and sizes are scrambling to identify an appropriate niche to grow their companies in sustainable ways. One company that has demonstrated a flair for succeeding where others have failed is Stupid.com, an e-business specializing in seasonal and specialty gift items with a zany touch for all occasionsRead MoreAnalysis Of Mahalo s Online Marketing Team Essay1913 Words   |  8 PagesMahalo’s online marketing team needs to brainstorm to formulate a proper and a long term plan, and come up with the right tools of social network to exploit them fruitfully. To assure that desired benefits in the long run, however, the plan needs to be improvised constantly, responding to the changing trends by taking proper efforts. Mahalo should take the following points into their considerations to make a strategy and set an expectation of the plan. - A well-crafted social media marketing goals:Read MoreMarketing Analysis : Pinterest Is A Free, Online Bulletin Board997 Words   |  4 PagesPinterest is a free, online bulletin board, facilitated by users to share their favorite images that launched in 2010. Since its launch the site grew to the #3 social media site, behind Facebook and Twitter. Pinterest is a well-rounded product that allows marketers to promote their products, companies the ability to post images of their products and link them back to the company website serving as a virtual store catalog, and users to collaborate and share interests. 1. SWOT Analysis: Strengths: TheRead MoreMarketing Analysis : Gopro Sells Products Direct From Their Website Online And Retail Locations1440 Words   |  6 Pages7.1.4 Place. GoPro sells products direct from their website online and retail locations through GoPro authorized resellers. There are over 25,000 retail locations selling GoPro products worldwide (Bloomberg, 2015). The stores range from Walmart to a small mom and pop bicycle rental shop in the Bahamas. Consumers benefit by being able to purchase accessories everywhere, not being limited to a high end or specific store to upgrade or purchase an extra battery, adds value. The plan is to continueRead MoreOnline Marketing Strategy1251 Words   |  6 PagesDigital Marketing Strategy Jacob Orquin Department of Business Administration Aarhus University E-business models Chaffey Smith (2008) The e-marketing plan Chaffey (2009) Online strategy model Guava Media, Nyborg (2009) Which KPI’s? Who are the customers? Qualitative/explorative analyses segments, position, messages Quatitative analyses Cross- upsales, loyalty Qualify the customers/ market Touchpoint strategy Integration of digital strategy in corporate/ marketingRead MoreImpact Of Internet On Modern Business1699 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦... 3 Articles Summary†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.....4 Article 1†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦4 Article 2†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦....5 Article 3†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦6 Analysis...†¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...†¦..†¦...7 Appendices.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..8 â€Æ' Deri Kusniawati Dr. Mario Beruvides IE 4320 4 Dec. 2015 Internet Impacts on Modern Business Introduction Internet is a powerful and an influentialRead MoreMarketing and Act Convert Engage1038 Words   |  5 PagesA SOSTAC ® and PRACE planning checklist for online marketing Table of contents Start here – how can this template be used? 1 SOSTAC ® Digital Marketing Plan outline incorporating RACE 2 SITUATION 2 OBJECTIVES 2 STRATEGY 3 TACTICS 3 ACTIONS 4 CONTROL 4 Start here – how can this template be used? SOSTAC ® and RACE are two of the main tools we’ve created to help marketers plan and manage their marketing. It’s no surprise that weve had several questions askingRead MoreDigital Marketing Web Analysis Report1369 Words   |  6 Pages Digital Marketing Web Analysis Report Student’s name: Institution: Instructor: Subject: â€Æ' Executive Summary This report looks at the company website for Kogan.com which is the client organization and Appliances online, the field related competitor. The criteria used for analysis depends upon four identified criteria which include: trust, content, usability and design. This four criteria will be used to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the particular websites identified above mainly theRead MoreSearch Engine Optimization1221 Words   |  5 Pagesoptimisation is an Internet Marketing method that works to ensure your brand is revealed as high up as possible in the search engines, namely Google. This means it is more visible to those who are searching for your product or service. SEO attempts to optimise your website for the Google algorithms through a variety of techniques that strive to filter quality and relevant content. Why choose SEO over traditional marketing? Search Engine Optimization is the future of marketing. As the web replaces traditional

Alternative Fuels The industrial gas turbine Free Essays

Investigation of alternative fuels for industrial gas turbines Tamal Bhattacharjee, Paul Nihill, Cormac Bulfin, Ishank Arora Contents 1. Abstract4 2. Introduction4 3. We will write a custom essay sample on Alternative Fuels: The industrial gas turbine or any similar topic only for you Order Now Hydrogen5 3. 1Production5 3. 1. 1Steam Reforming of Hydrocarbons5 3. 1. 2Water Splitting5 3. 1. 3Gasification of Waste Biomass to produce syngas6 3. 1. 4The process7 3. 1. 5Application to industrial gas turbines8 4. Methanol9 4. 1Abstract9 4. 2Introduction9 4. 3History10 4. 4Manufacturing Process10 4. 4. 1 Production of methanol from synthesis gas10 4. Industrial Process11 4. 5. 1STEP-1: Feed Production11 4. 5. 2STEP-2: Reforming11 4. 5. 3STEP-3: Methanol Synthesis12 4. 5. 4STEP-4: Methanol Purification12 4. 6How it works on a gas turbine12 4. 7Feasibility15 4. 8Advantages Disadvantages16 4. 9Conclusion17 5. Power Alcohol17 5. 1Introduction17 5. 2Chemistry18 5. 3Production18 5. 3. 1Ethanol from sugar cane18 5. 3. 2Fermentation18 5. 3. 3Distillation19 5. 3. 4Fractional Distillation19 5. 4Air pollution21 5. 5Advantages23 5. 6Disadvantages23 6. References24 1. Abstract The industrial gas turbine is a key part of modern electricity generation. In 1998 15% of electric power was produced by gas turbines. Due to their efficiency, compactness, reliability and relatively low capital cost 81% of new electric power demand will be met by industrial gas turbines. Gas turbines must meet very strict NOx CO and CO2 regulations. (GL Juste 2006). As the popularity of gas turbines and combined heat and power generation plants increases research has turned to cheaper and more environmentally friendly fuels for gas turbines. Methane C2H4 is the main fossil fuel used in gas turbines today but with increased regulations on carbon emissions combined with the increasing cost of fossil fuels, research is turning to alternative fuels which may power gas turbines into the future. This literature review explores potential liquid and gas alternative fuels for industrial gas turbines along with some of the latest research in the area and some examples of the successful industrial applications. 2. Introduction The increasing cost of fossil fuels, the fact that they are a finite resource and the environmental effects of their combustion means that research into alternative fuels is one of the largest and most varied areas of scientific investigation in progress today. As with all scientific research, some will be successful and form the basis of future energy production and some will be either too inefficient or impractical to be implemented in industry. It is interesting to note that some of the methods which seemed impractical even 10 years ago are now being introduced owing to the increasing cost of fossil fuels. Fuels derived from biomass and gasification of sewage sludge and municipal waste and some methods of hydrogen fuel production appear to hold the most promise. â€Å"Different global energy scenario studies indicate that in India biomass may contribute much more: up to 30% of the energy supply by 2100† (K. K. Gupta et al 2010) Gas turbines and combined heat and power (CHP) systems are at the forefront of future European strategies on energy production with current efficiencies for combined cycle facilities above 60%. â€Å"The main CHP targets are the reduction of the overall costs and the development of above 40 kW biomass-fired systems†¦.. Gas turbines enjoy certain merits relative to steam turbines and diesel engines. They have high grade waste heat, lower weight per unit power, dual fuel capability, low maintenance cost, low vibration levels, low capital cost, compact size, short delivery time, high flexibility and reliability, fast starting time, lower manpower, and have better environmental performance. † (P. A. Pilavachi et al 2000) This project focuses on alternative fuels as applied to industrial gas turbines owing to their projected increase in popularity in the short to medium term at least. 3. Hydrogen 3. 1Production 3. 1. Steam Reforming of Hydrocarbons The bulk of hydrogen fuel production is currently via steam reforming of natural gas this process involves the reaction of natural gas or liquid hydrocarbons with high temperature steam to produce varying amounts of CO and H2. Steam reforming of hydrocarbons does not eliminate CO2 but it greatly reduces the amount which is discharged into the atmosphere . Steam reforming of hydrocarbons is an efficient way of reducing CO2 emissions. In addition to the H2 produced during gasification a low temperature gas shift reaction with the remaining carbon monoxide can produce further H2. The process of steam reforming natural gas along with the gas shift reaction are governed by the chemical equations below. (K. K. Gupta et al 2010) Steam Reforming: CH4 + H2O – CO + 3H2 ? H = +251 kJ/mol Gas Shift: CO + H2O – CO2 +H2 ? H= -42 kJ/mol (K. K. Gupta et al 2010) The release of CO2 can be completely eliminated in a large plant where the CO2 is captured and injected into an oil or gas reservoir. It is currently disputed between scientists whether or not the production of H2 in this way releases more CO2 than directly burning fossil fuels. 3. 1. 2Water Splitting There is currently a lot of research concerning the splitting of water to produce H2. This method is yet to find industrial application as it takes a lot of energy to split water and the only sustainable method is the use of renewable technologies to provide the energy. The hydrogen is more likely to be used as a storage medium when the power generated by renewable technologies is not required. An example of this would be the storage of power from a wind turbine during the day. There is a lot of very interesting research into water-splitting with many methods being explored simultaneously. Thermo chemical water splitting using solar power is an interesting option. Direct thermal water splitting is impractical due to the energy requirements to heat the water to 25000K. But if the water is reacted with metal oxides and redox materials it can be achieved at a much lower temperature. The oxygen and hydrogen are released at different stages eliminating the need for separation. This process can be conducted in a cycle that produces H2 more efficiently from solar radiation. 3. 1. 3Gasification of Waste Biomass to produce syngas A Practical Example of waste to energy conversion is the Pyromex waste to energy facility in Germany. The Pyromex system is currently being used successfully to gasify industrial waste in a purpose built plant in Munich Germany. Due to the fact there are no gaseous emissions from the system there is no need for the construction of smoke stacks and the system is considered separate to incineration by EU authorities. Emissions from the plant are in the form of solid sand like dry waste. The waste composition is tabulated below and shows how far below allowable limits the process is. The raw material in the process is otherwise unrecyclable waste products and the system can treat sewage sludge, plastics, fly ash from power plants and various other waste products. The system has the potential to be a major contributor to the Hydrogen Economy. The prototype plant working on a throughput of 25 ton/day had the potential to produce approximately 2150 kWh by a combined heat to electricity and syngas engine generator system. If used in combination with an industrial gas turbine there is no doubt that owing to the greater efficiency this power output could be improved. Fig. 1 – Exhaust gas emissions (Pyromex ®) 3. 1. 4The process The material to be gasified is introduced into the slowly turning reactor through a two stage tank system. With this setup an oxygen free environment can be ensured inside the reactor pipe, where the conversion of the organics to syngas takes place at over 1000 °C. The produced gas is then cleaned with a simple acid and an alkaline scrubber. Even though the temperatures within the reactor are far above 1000 °C, the surface remains cool enough to be touched by hand. The PYROMEX gasification is a closed circuit process and therefore no emissions are released into the environment. The process flow chart below gives a better understanding of the workings of the plant. This process can be easily scaled. And there are numerous plants completed and in the process of construction in Germany and the U. S. Fig. 2 – Gasification process of producing syngas from waste biomass (Pyromex ®) 3. 1. 5Application to industrial gas turbines Once the hydrogen has been produced it can be mixed with carbon monoxide which can also be produced efficiently using solar power. This syngas can be used in an Industrial gas turbine with some modifications to the fuel nozzle system and careful control of the fuel air ratio to produce electricity. In the case of liquid fuel turbines the hydrogen can be converted to various hydrocarbons using the Fischer-Tropsch process. The use of hydrogen in a gas turbine is a relatively new concept with the use of high hydrogen content syngas becoming an attractive area for research. Unfortunately the use of hydrogen rich gas in a conventional gas turbine involves some tweaks to the ystem. The natural gas lean-premixed combustors have to undergo some modifications if fed with hydrogen rich fuels due to the combined effect of hydrogen shorter auto-ignition delay and faster flame speed. (Paulo Gobbato et al 2010) One of the routes with the highest potential is the pre combustion route utilizing coal in an integrated gasification and combine cycle (IGCC). The challenge in utilizing hydrogen rich fuel is principally associated wi th its reduced auto-ignition delay time, which can be addressed in one of three approaches: 1. De-rating the engine – allowing the same mixing time by increasing the auto-ignition delay time through altering the characteristics of the vitiated air (i. e. the inlet temperature of the flow to the SEV). 2. Decreasing the reactivity of the fuel – i. e. by dilution with an inert gas. 3. Modifying the hardware – either to reduce the mixer residence time in line with the reduced auto ignition delay time or develop a concept which is less influenced by the reactivity of the fuel. (Nils Erland et al 2012) 4. Methanol 4. 1Abstract 5. When methanol is intended to be used as fuel for gas turbine, it is very important to enhance overall thermal efficiency of the gas turbine system, and to make it competitive with conventional oil or gas fuels. There are many ways to accomplish this. Combined cycle is not, however, a proper way, as this could also be applied to conventional fuel. Noting the unique characteristic of methanol, the steam reforming regenerative cycle was investigated by many institutions. In this scheme, wasted heat of the gas turbine exhaust gas is transferred to reformed gas. And it is recycled back to the gas turbine as a part of fuel, thus resulting in increased overall efficiency of the gas turbine. Thermal decomposition of methanol is also an endothermic reaction and may be applied to the regenerative cycle. In either case, however, only a part of the waste heat is recovered. Hence the hybrid system with combined cycle was proposed to achieve additional heat recovery. But this is a complex system. 4. 2Introduction 6. Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol, wood alcohol, wood naphtha or wood spirits, is a chemical with the formula CH3OH. . 8. Fig. 3 – Chemical formulation of Methanol 9. Methanol can be used as alternative fuel in gas turbine. Methanol is made from natural gas, coal, and biomass. This was one of the older alternative fuels. Like Ethanol, Methanol is very good for blending with gasoline to replace the harmful octane enhancers. The benefits of using Methanol are that it reduces emissions, which has a significant effect on bettering the environment. Methanol can easily be blended with gasoline. It also has a lower risk of flammability than normal gasoline. Another benefit of Methanol is that it is made from domestically renewable sources. Methanol can also be used to make the octane enhancer MTBE. Another huge possible benefit of Methanol is that it can be made into hydrogen. 10. 4. 3History 11. Methanol has been tested as a gas turbine fuel in the U. S. In 1974, a 12-hour test was conducted by Turbo Power and Marine in a 20 MW gas turbine at the Bayboro Station of Florida Power Corporation. The methanol was fired as a liquid. NOx emissions were 74% less than those from No. 2 Distillate, and CO emissions were comparable (Power 1979). In 1978 and 1979, EPRI and Southern California Edison Company sponsored a 523-hour test at SCE’s Ellwood Energy Support Facility, using one half of 52 4. 4Manufacturing Process 4. 4. 1 Production of methanol from synthesis gas 12. Carbon monoxide and hydrogen react over a catalyst to produce methanol. Today, the most widely used catalyst is a mixture of Cu (Copper), zinc oxide, and alumina first used by ICI in 1966. At 5–10 M Pa (50–100 atm) and 250  °C, it can catalyze the production of methanol from carbon monoxide and hydrogen with high selectivity (99. 8%): 13. CO + 2 H2 CH3OH†¦.. It is worth noting that the production of synthesis gas from methane produces three moles of hydrogen gas for every mole of carbon monoxide, while the methanol synthesis consumes only two moles of hydrogen gas per mole of carbon monoxide. One way of dealing with the excess hydrogen is to inject carbon dioxide into the methanol synthesis reactor, where it, too, reacts to form methanol according to the equation: 14. CO2 + 3 H2 CH3OH + H2O. 15. Some chemists believe that the certain catalysts synthesize methanol using CO2 as an intermediary, and consuming CO only indirectly. 6. CO2 + 3 H2 CH3OH + H2O; where the H2O byproduct is recycled via the gas shift reaction: 17. CO + H2O CO2 + H2, 18. This gives an overall reaction, which is the same as listed above. 19. CO + 2 H2 CH3OH 4. 5Industrial Process Fig. 4 – Industrial process for creating Methanol 4. 5. 1STEP-1: Feed Production 20. The two main two feed stocks, natural gas and water, both require purification before use. Natu ral Gas contains low levels of sulphur compounds and undergo a desulphurization process to reduce, the sulphur levels of less than one part per million. Impurities in the water are reduced to undetectable or parts per billion levels before being converted to steam and added to the process. If not removed, these impurities can result in reduced heat efficiency and significant damages to major pieces of equipment. 4. 5. 2STEP-2: Reforming 21. It is the process which transforms the methane and the steam to intermediate reactants of hydrogen, carbon-dioxide and carbon monoxide. Carbon dioxide is also added to the feed gas stream at this stage to produce a mixture of components in the ideal ratio to efficiently produce methanol. This process is carried out in a Reformer furnace which is heated by burning natural gas as fuel. 22. Reaction: Reaction: 4. 5. 3STEP-3: Methanol Synthesis 23. After removing excess heat from the reformed gas it is compressed before being sent to the methanol production stage in the synthesis reactor. Here the reactants are converted to methanol and separated out as a crude product with a composition of methanol (68%) and water (31%). Traces of byproducts are also formed. Methanol conversion is at a rate of 5% per pass hence there is a continual recycling of the un- reacted gases in to the synthesis loop. 24. Reaction: 25. 4. 5. 4STEP-4: Methanol Purification 26. The 68% methanol solution is purified in two distinct steps in tall distillation columns called the topping column and refining column to yield a refined product with a purity of 99% methanol classified as Grade AA refined methanol. 27. The methanol process is tested at various stages and the finished product is stored in a large secured tank age area off the plant until such time that it is ready to be delivered to customers. 4. 6How it works on a gas turbine 28. Chemical reaction involved is: It reacts with water to form carbon di oxide (CO2) and hydrogen (H). 9. CH3OH + H2O = CO2 + 3H2 30. The reaction is endothermic and absorbs waste heat at about 300oC. The system performance was predicted using in house process simulator called CAPES and found thermal efficiency of approx. 50% (LHV) when turbine inlet temperature is 1,100oC and compression ratio is 14. The schematic diagram given below illustrates its function. 31. 32. Fig. 5 – Methanol fueled gas turbine process 33. 34. The performance of the gas turbine with steam reforming was recalculated using PRO/II. The same adiabatic efficiency of 87% for compressor and 90% for turbine were used. Similar value of overall thermal efficiency of approx. 50% was obtained as shown in Table-1. For reference, the performance of air heating system was also investigated. In this case, thermal efficiency was in the same level as reforming but total heat transfer area is 1. 7 times of steam reforming case. Let’s explain model making of steam reformer by PRO/II. After defining stoichiometric data for steam reforming reaction, Gibbs reactor was used for equilibrium calculation at specified temperature. For combustor design, two combustion reactions were defined. Then two conversion reactors were connected in series and set the conversion parameter to 1. Both reactors are defined as adiabatic. 35. Heat exchangers having phase change were split into 10 to 20 zones and flow configurations were set to true counter flow. Minimum pinch points were set to 10 to 20 oC. Pressure drop of each exchangers were set to 0. 02-0. 01 atm and overall heat transfer coefficient were set to100kcal/h C. Flow Scheme| unit| Fig-1| Fig. -2| Waste Heat Recovery| | Air Heating Methanol Evap. | Steam Reforming, Water Injection Methanol Evap. Turbine Inlet Temperature| oC| 1,100| 1,100| Compression Ratio| -| 14| 14| Methanol Rate| kgmol/h| 0. 133| 0. 133| Stoichiometric Air Rate| kgmol/h| 1| 1| Air Rate| kgmol/h| 4. 150| 2. 600| Reforming Water Rate| kgmol/h| -| 0. 133| Total Water Rate| kgmol/h| -| 0. 720| Excess Air Mol Ratio| -| 4. 150| 2. 600| Water/Air Mol Ratio| -| 0. 000| 0. 277| Water/Methanol Mol Ratio| -| 0. 000| 5. 414| 1st Compressor Power| kW| -12. 472| - 7. 814| 1st Turbine Power| kW| 24. 128| 19. 750| Water Injection Pump| kW| -| -0. 006| Net Shaft Power| kW| 11. 656| 11. 930| Power Output| kW| 11. 423| 11. 691| Methanol Heat of Combustion (HHV)| kW| 47. 149| 23. 574| Methanol HHV| kJ/mol| 638. 10| 638. 10| Overall Thermal Efficiency (HHV)| %| 48. 45| 49. 59| Compressor Adiabatic Efficiency| %| 87| 87| Turbine Adiabatic Efficiency| %| 90| 90| Generator Efficiency| %| 98| 98| Methanol Evaporator Area/Pinch Point| m2/oC| 0. 140/10| 0. 138/5| Methanol Reformer Area/Reaction Temp. | m2/oC| -| 0. 201/300| Air Heater Area/Pinch Point/Max. Temp. | m2/oC| 2. 972/10/525| 0| Water Evaporator Area/Pinch Point| m2| -| 1. 452/10| Total Surface Area| m2| 3. 112| 1. 791| Exhaust Temperature| oC| 335. 3| 102. 5| Table 1 – Methanol Fuel Gas Turbine with Steam Reforming Water Injection or Air Heating 4. 7Feasibility 36. MW, twin engine, gas turbine generator unit supplied by Turbo Power and Marine Systems, Inc. (Edison Co. 1981). The methanol was fired as a liquid. Some fuel system modifications were performed to permit the higher mass and volumetric flow of methanol to achieve base load output. Some elastomers in the fuel system were replaced with materials impervious to methanol attack. The tests showed: â€Å"Operations on methanol are as flexible as on natural gas or distillate fuel. The ability to start, stop, accelerate, decelerate, perform automatic synchronization, and respond to control signals is equal to operations on either natural gas or distillate fuel. Turbine performance on methanol is improved over other fuels due to higher mass flow and the lower combustion temperatures resulting from methanol operations. Oxides of nitrogen emissions on them ethanol-fueled turbine, without water injection, were approximately 80% of the emissions of the distillate-fueled turbine with water injection. There was a significant reduction in particulate emissions during methanol operation. An additional reduction in oxides of nitrogen emission was obtained during operations of the methanol-fueled turbine with water injection. No significant problems occurred during the test that could be attributed to methanol. The hot end inspection indicated cleaner components within the methanol-fueled turbine. † During 1984-1985, GE conducted methanol combustion tests of heavy-duty gas turbine combustors in a private study for Celanese Chemical Company, Inc. This work is unpublished. The tests were conducted at GE’s Gas Turbine. Development Laboratory in Schenectady, N . Y. Tests were performed with an MS6001B full-scale combustor representative of GE heavy-duty gas turbine combustors, and an MS7001 developmental dry low NOx combustor. Then ethanol was fired as a liquid, â€Å"dry† and also with water addition. A high-pressure centrifugal pump was used to supply the methanol to the combustor. The tests demonstrated that methanol fuel can be successfully burned in GE heavy-duty combustors without requiring major modifications to the combustor. NOx emissions were approximately 20% of those for the same combustor firing NO. 2 distillate at the same firing temperature. With water addition, NOx levels of 9 ppmv could be achieved. Liner metal temperatures, exit pattern factors, and dynamic pressures were not significantly affected by methanol combustion and met GE criteria for acceptable performance. The results are valid for 2000 F firing temperature machines (E-class). Additional work would be required to confirm performance with methanol fuel, elevated firing temperatures of the F series of machines. Vaporized methanol will reduce NOx 5% to 10% (relative to CH4 emissions) whereas liquid methanol will reduce NOx 30% relative to CH4 emissions. Water content in the methanol provides further NOx reduction. In 1984, a field test demonstration was performed at the University of California at Davis (California Energy Commission 1986). Methanol was fired in a 3. 25 MW Allison 501-KB gas turbine for 1,036 hours. Low NOx emissions were observed and were further reduced by mixing water with the methanol. Problems encountered with the traditional gas turbine fuel pump were bypassed by using an off-board centrifugal pump. 4. 8Advantages Disadvantages 37. Methanol is a liquefied form of methane, a naturally-occurring gaseous hydrocarbon produced by decomposition. Currently, methane is burned as a ‘waste† gas at oil drilling platforms, coal mining sites, landfills, and sewage treatment plants. The advantage is methane, and its derivative methanol is that it is extremely plentiful; drilling for oil, mining coal, and the decomposition of organic matter all produce methane already. As a hydrocarbon similar to propane and petroleum, methane is a very powerful, explosive gas that can easily take the place of petroleum without marked decline in power or major retooling of existing technologies. The disadvantages of methanol is the process by which methane is converted into a liquid at normal temperatures; by mixing methane with natural gas and gasoline, methane is converted into methanol. But the need for gasoline does not entirely wean the United States off of oil, so its â€Å"alternative† status is questionable. Additionally, the process to capture, store, and convert methane is prohibitively expensive compared to gasoline. 38. 4. 9Conclusion 39. Methanol is considered a superior turbine fuel, with the promise of low emissions, excellent heat rate, and high power output. The gas turbine fuel system must be modified to accommodate the higher mass and volumetric flow of methanol (relative to natural gas or distillate). The low flash point of methanol necessitates explosion proofing. The low flash point also dictates that startup be performed with a secondary fuel such as distillate or natural gas. Testing to date has been with methanol as a liquid. GE is comfortable with methanol as a liquid or vapor. GE is prepared to make commercial offers for new or modified gas turbines utilizing methanol fuel in liquid or vapor form based on the earlier experience. Some combustion testing may be required for modern machines applying for very low NOx permits. 5. Power Alcohol 5. 1Introduction Power Alcohol is a mixture of petroleum and ethanol in different proportions and due to these proportions different names are given to each blend like:- 1. As a blend of 10 percent ethanol with 90 percent unleaded gasoline called â€Å"E-10 Unleaded†. 2. As a component of reformulated gasoline, both directly and/or as ethyl tertiary butyl ether (ETBE). 3. As a primary fuel with 85 parts of ethanol blended with 15 parts of unleaded gasoline called â€Å"E-85. (Rex Weber 2003) When mixed with unleaded gasoline, ethanol increases octane levels, decreases exhaust emissions, and extends the supply of gasoline. Ethanol in its liquid form, called ethyl alcohol, can be used as a fuel when blended with gasoline or in its original state. Well the production of ethanol fuel began way back in1907 but Ethanol use and production has increased considerably during the 1980s and 1990s not just due to the lack of fossil fuels but was also due to several other factors 1. Ethanol reduces the country’s dependence on imported oil, lowering the trade deficit and ensuring a dependable source of fuel should foreign supplies be interrupted. 2. Farmers see an increased demand for grain which helps to stabilize prices. 3. The quality of the environment improves. Carbon monoxide emissions are reduced, and lead and other carcinogens (cancer causing agents) are removed from gasoline. 5. 2Chemistry Glucose (a simple sugar) is created in the plant by  photosynthesis. 6 CO2  + 6 H2O + light C6H12O6  + 6 O2 During  ethanol fermentation,  glucose  is decomposed into ethanol and  carbon dioxide. C6H12O6   2 C2H5OH+ 2 CO2  + heat During combustion ethanol reacts with  oxygen  to produce carbon dioxide,  water, and heat: C2H5OH + 3 O2   2 CO2  + 3 H2O + heat After doubling the combustion reaction because two molecules of ethanol are produced for each glucose molecule, and adding all three reactions together, there are equal numbers of each type of atom on each side of the equation, and the net reaction for the overall production and consumption of ethanol is just: Glucose itself is not the only substance in the plant that is fermented. The simple sugar  fructose  also undergoes fermentation. Three other compounds in the plant can be fermented after breaking them up by  hydrolysis  into the glucose or fructose molecules that compose them. Starch  and  cellulose  are molecules that are strings of glucose molecules, and sucrose  (ordinary table sugar) is a molecule of glucose bonded to a molecule of fructose. The energy to create fructose in the plant ultimately comes from the metabolism of glucose created by photosynthesis, and so sunlight also provides the energy generated by the fermentation of these other molecules. Ethanol may also be produced industrially from  ethene  (ethylene). Addition of water to the double bond converts ethene to ethanol: C2H4  + H2O CH3CH2OH This is done in the presence of an acid which  catalyzes  the reaction, but is not consumed. The ethene is produced from petroleum by  steam cracking. 5. 3Production Ethanol can be produced by various methods but the most commonly used in today’s world is by the method of fermentation and distillation of sugarcane, grains, corn etc. 5. 3. 1Ethanol from sugar cane The first stage in ethanol production is to grow a crop such as sugar cane. The sugar cane of cut down and undergoes fermentation and distillation. 5. 3. 2Fermentation Crushed sugar cane in placed in fermentation tanks. Bacteria in the tanks acts on the sugar cane and in time produce a ‘crude’ form of ethanol. This is then passed on to the ‘distillation stills’ where it is refined to a pure form. 5. 3. 3Distillation The impure/crude ethanol is heated in a ‘still’ until it vaporizes and rises into the neck where it cools and condenses back to pure liquid ethanol. The impurities are left behind in the still. The ethanol trickles down the condensing tube into a barrel, ready for distribution. When burned it produces fewer pollutants than traditional fuels such as petrol and diesel. Fig. 6 – Distillation process of impure/crude ethanol The production of petroleum is done by the fractional distillation of crude oil. 5. 3. 4Fractional Distillation The various components of crude oil have different sizes, weights and boiling temperatures; so, the first step is to separate these components. Because they have different boiling temperatures, they can be separated easily by a process called  fractional distillation. The steps of fractional distillation are as follows: 1. You  heat  the mixture of two or more substances (liquids) with different boiling points to a high temperature. Heating is usually done with high pressure steam to temperatures of about 1112 degrees Fahrenheit / 600 degrees Celsius. 2. The mixture  boils, forming vapor (gases); most substances go into the vapor phase. 3. The  vapor  enters the bottom of a long column (fractional distillation column) that is filled with trays or plates. The trays have many holes or bubble caps (like a loosened cap on a soda bottle) in them to allow the vapor to pass through. They increase the contact time between the vapor and the liquids in the column and  help to collect liquids that form at various heights in the column. There is a temperature difference across the column (hot at the bottom, cool at the top). 4. The  vapor rises  in the column. 5. As the vapor rises through the trays in the column, it  cools. 6. When a substance in the vapor reaches a height where the temperature of the column is equal to that substance’s boiling point, it will  condense  to form a liquid. (The substance with the lowest boiling point will condense at the highest point in the column; substances with higher boiling points will condense lower in the column. ). 7. The trays  collect  the various liquid fractions. 8. The collected liquid fractions may  pass to condensers, which cool them further, and then go to storage tanks, or they may  go to other areas for further chemical processing Fractional distillation is useful for separating a mixture of substances with narrow differences in boiling points, and is the most important step in the refining process. The oil refining process starts with a fractional distillation column. On the right, you can see several chemical processors that are described in the next section. Very few of the components come out of the fractional distillation column ready for market. Many of them must be chemically processed to make other fractions. For example, only 40% of distilled crude oil is gasoline; however, gasoline is one of the major products made by oil companies. Rather than continually distilling large quantities of crude oil, oil companies chemically process some other fractions from the distillation column to make gasoline; this processing increases the yield of gasoline from each barrel of crude oil. Fig. 7 – Fractional distillation of crude oil 5. 4Air pollution Compared with conventional  unleaded gasoline, ethanol is a particulate-free burning fuel source that combusts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, water and  aldehydes. Gasoline produces 2. 44  CO2  equivalent  kg/l and ethanol 1. 94. Since ethanol contains 2/3 of the energy per volume as gasoline, ethanol produces 19% more CO2  than gasoline for the same energy. The  Clean Air Act  requires the addition of  oxygenates  to reduce carbon monoxide emissions in the United States. The additive  MTBE  is currently being phased out due to ground water contamination; hence ethanol becomes an attractive alternative additive. Annual Fuel Ethanol Production by Country (2007–2011)[2][64][65][66] Top 10 countries/regional blocks (Millions of U. S. liquid gallons per year)| World rank| Country/Region| 2011| 2010| 2009| 2008| 2007| 1|   United States| 13,900| 13,231| 10,938| 9,235| 6,485| 2|   Brazil| 5,573. 24| 6,921. 54| 6,577. 89| 6,472. 2| 5,019. 2| 3|   European Union| 1,199. 31| 1,176. 88| 1,039. 52| 733. 0| 570. 30| 4|   China| 554. 76| 541. 55| 541. 55| 501. 90| 486. 00| 5|   Thailand| | | 435. 20| 89. 80| 79. 20| 6|   Canada| 462. 3| 356. 63| 290. 59| 237. 70| 211. 30| 7|   India| | | 91. 67| 66. 00| 52. 80| 8|   Colombia| | | 83. 21| 79. 30| 74. 90| 9|   Australia| 87. 2| 66. 04| 56. 80| 26. 40| 26. 40| 10| Other| | | 247. 27| | | Table 2 – Annual fuel ethanol production by country Table 2 – Annual fuel ethanol produc tion by country | World Total| 22,356. 09| 22,946. 87| 19,534. 993| 17,335. 20| 13,101. 7| 5. 5Advantages Ethanol has a higher octane number (113) than regular unleaded gasoline (87) and premium unleaded gasoline (93). Complete combustion: Ethanol molecules contain 35 percent oxygen, and serve as an â€Å"oxygenate† to raise the oxygen content of gasoline fuel. Thus, it helps gasoline burn completely and reduces the buildup of gummy deposits. Prevent overheating: Ethanol burns cooler than gasoline. Fuel Type| Ethanol| Regular Gasoline| Premier Gasoline| E10 Gasohol| E85 Gasohol| Energy Content (/Gallons)| 84,600| 125,000| 131,200| 120,900| 90,660| Table 3 – Energy content of fuels Energy content: As shown in Table 2, fuel ethanol contains around 33 percent less energy content than regular gasoline. The energy content of gasohol blends (E10 or E85) is determined by the energy content of ethanol and gasoline, and their ratio. Emissions from ethanol are about 48% of diesel; it is lowest of any of the fuels. â€Å"The clean burning characteristics extend turbine life, possibly by as much as 100%. † (K. K. Gupta 2010) 5. 6Disadvantages Loss of power and performance – Pure ethanol is over 100+ octane, and provides the fuel with much of its octane rating. Because Ethanol burns at a lower temperature than the older (MTBE) gas, boaters can expect to see a 2 to 3 % drop in RPM. â€Å"Use of ethanol in the pure state or as a blend would probably require replacement of any white metal or aluminum in the system as well as some elastomers. † (K. K. Gupta 2010) 6. References Hydrogen Journal Papers G. L. Juste (2006) Hydrogen injection as additional fuel in gas turbine combustor. Evaluation of effects. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 31 (2006) 2112 – 2121 K. K. Gupta a,*, A. Rehman b, R. M. Sarviya b, (2010) Bio-fuels for the gas turbine: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 14 (2010) 2946–2955 P. A. Pilavachi (2000), Power generation with gas turbine systems and combined heat and power, Applied Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 1421 ±1429 Paolo Gobbato*, Massimo Masi, Andrea Toffolo, Andrea Lazzaretto (2010) Numerical simulation of a hydrogen fuelled gas turbine combustor. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 36 (2011) 7993- 8002 Nils Erland L. Haugena, Christian Brunhuberb and Marie Bysveena (2012) Hydrogen fuel supply system and re-heat gas turbine. Combustion Energy Procedia 23 ( 2012 ) 151 – 160 Website Pyromex ® Technology Description http://www. pyromex. com/index. php/en/pyromex-technology/technology-description Methanol Power alcohol â€Å"A Special Report: Burning Tomorrow’s Fuels,† Power, S14-S15, February 1979. â€Å"Test and Evaluation of Methanol in a Gas Turbine System,† Southern California Edison Company, EPRI Report AP-1712, February 1981. â€Å"Methanol. Clean Coal Stationary Engine Demonstration Project. Executive Summary,† California Energy Commission, Report P500-86-004, February 1986. Methanol Power Generation – Demonstration Test Starts for a Power Source at Peak Demand† Japanese High-Technology Monitor, 5 April 1993. â€Å"Ethanol blended fuels† – Rex Weber 2003 of Northwest Iowa Community College in cooperation with the Iowa Corn Promotion Board. â€Å"Fuel Ethanol† – Zhiyou Wen, Extension Engineer, Biological System Engineering, Virginia Tech John Ignosh, Area Specialist, Northwest District, Virginia Cooperative Extension, Jactone Arogo, Extension Engineer, Biological System Engineering, Virginia Tech How to cite Alternative Fuels: The industrial gas turbine, Essay examples

The partition of bengal 1905 free essay sample

This is to certify that ARATRIK DAS, student of BA LL. B (Hons. ), I semester has successfully completed the Dissertation on the project titled â€Å"THE ANTI-PARTITION MOVEMENT: An Effort To Understand The behavior, charectar and backgroud of the movement under my guidance and supervision is an original work of student and is being submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of Integrated BA LL. B (Hons. ) from University of Petroleum and Energy Studies for the requirement of the course of study w. e. f. August 2012-2017. This report has not been submitted earlier to University of Petroleum and Energy Studies or any other University/Institute for the fulfillment of the requirement of the course of study. Also no part of this project may be used an reproduced by other, either accidentally or commercially without the written consent of author and his/her mentor/supervisor. Signature of StudentSignature of Supervisor ARATRIK DAS Place: Dehradun, Uttarakhand. Date: DECLARATION We, hereby declare that this report is the work of my research done on the topic ANTI-PARTITION MOVEMENT: An Effort To Understand The behavior, charectar and backgroud of the movement . This report herein pertains to the study I have carried out, along with the support of my mentor, Dr. Vinita Singh. I have put utmost care and enthusiasm in preparing the same and thus hold that the data reported is true and valid to my knowledge. Thanking You. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION PLAN OF PARTITION MOTIVE OF THE PARTITION REACTION TO THE PARTITION ANTI-PARTITION MOVEMENT REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITY SWADESHI BOYCOTT NATIONAL EDUCATION SPREAD OF SWADESHI MOVEMENT ACROSS INDIA IMPACT OF SWADESHI MOVEMENT CRITICSM OF THE MOVEMENT EXTREMIST PHRASE SURAT SPLIT ANNULMENT OF THE PARTITION INTRODUCTION The early twentieth century were stormy. This was the time when the greatest disaster in history took place. The political scenario has undergone a change. The British began to feel a little uncomfortable. The simmering discontent. Political discontent has been growing due to the governments inability to organize effective relief during the plague and famine. To stem the discontent, the British played political asset with great aplomb. For the first time, they used their political divide and conquer game with great force. From 1870, the British began to encourage Hindus and Muslims to form their own political parties to establish their distinct religious identities. This was perhaps the beginning of the municipalization of the policy. Colombia is not only encouraged the two communities to form political parties along religious lines, they have taken several positive steps to create a situation in which Hindus and Muslims would be forced to think of a way that if their identity religion is in peril. This effort led to the partition of Bengal in 1905. West Bengal, Orissa and Bihar was on one side and the former East Bengal and Assam was on the other. The score was made along communal lines. This score gave impetus to the religious divide and, as a result of this, All India Muslim League and All India Hindu Mahasabha was formed. Both organizations aim to inflame communal passions. BACKGROUND Partition of Bengal in 1905 made October 16 in the Viceroyalty of Lord Curzon (1899-1905), proved to be a momentous event in the history of modern Bengal. The idea of partition of Bengal did not start with Curzon. Bengal, which included Bihar and Orissa since 1765, was certainly much too large for a single province of British India. The first province became too large for efficient administration and required reorganization and smart division. The Lieutenant Governor of Bengal had to administer an area 189,000 square miles and in 1903 the population of the province increased to EUR 78. 50 million. Therefore, many districts in eastern Bengal were virtually ignored because of isolation and lack of communication that has made good governance almost impossible. Calcutta and its neighboring districts attracted all the energy and attention of the government. The condition of the peasants was miserable in the tax absentee landlords, and trade, commerce and education has been compromised. The administrative machinery of the province was under-staffed. Especially in East Bengal, in the campaign to cut by rivers and streams, no attention has been paid to the special difficulties of police work until the last decade of the 19th century. Organized piracy in the waterways had existed for at least a century. With administrative difficulties, the problems of famine, defense or language had at one time or another asked the government to consider the redefinition of administrative boundaries. Ad hoc efforts have been made to reorganize the administrative units of Bengal. In 1836, the upper provinces were sliced out of Bengal and placed under a Lieutenant Governor. In 1854, the Governor General in Council was relieved of the direct administration of Bengal was placed under a Lieutenant Governor. At the time it took Curzon partition scheme Bengal three long years to reach maturity. To follow the course of its development, we can mention the masterful summary of Sumit Sarkar given in his The Swadeshi Movement in Bengal: After the Orissa famine of 1866, Sir Stafford Northcote has suggested a reduction in the size of the great Bengal Presidency (which included, besides the good Bengal, the entire Bihar, Orissa and Assam) for reasons of administrative efficiency in 1874 Assam (along with Sylhet) was severed from Bengal to form a Chief Commissioner and in 1898 Lushai Hills were added to it. Proposals for partitioning Bengal were first considered in 1903. Initial pension Curzon was on grounds of administrative efficiency. It was probably during the noisy demonstrations and adverse reaction to the initial plan, the first officials considered the potential benefits of divided Bengal. Originally, the division was made on geography rather than a communal basis openly. Political considerations in this regard seems to have been a coup. The governments argument is that the partition of Bengal was purely an administrative measure with three main objectives. First, he wanted to relieve the government of Bengal part of the administrative burden and ensure a more efficient management in the suburbs. Second, the government seeks to promote the development of Assam back (headed by a Chief Commissioner) by extending its jurisdiction to provide an outlet to the sea Third, the government felt it was urgent to unite the various sections of the population speaking Uriya under one administration. There were other proposals to separate Chittagong and the districts of Dhaka (then Dacca) and Mymensigh Bengal and Assam to attach. Similarly Chhota Nagpur should be removed from Bengal and integrated with the central provinces. The governments proposals were officially released in January 1904. In February 1904, Curzon made an official tour of the eastern districts of Bengal to assess public opinion on the governments proposals. He consulted the main personalities of the various districts and speeches at Dhaka, Chittagong and Mymensigh explaining the governments position on the partition. It was during this visit that the decision to move from an expanded system possessed his mind. This would involve the creation of a new autonomous province under a Lieutenant Governor in the Legislative Council, an independent authority funding and transfer of territory as would justify a fully equipped administration. The expanded program has received the consent of the Government of Assam and Bengal. The new province would be in the state of Hill Tripura, the Divisions of Chittagong, Dhaka and Rajshahi (excluding Darjeeling) and the district of Malda amalgamated with Assam. Bengal was to not only make these vast territories in the East, but also to give the central provinces of the five states Hindi language. To the west, it would gain Sambalpur and a minor extent of five states Uriya French central provinces. Bengal would be left with an area of 141. 580 square miles and a population of 54 million, of which $ 42 million would be Hindus and 9 million Muslims. The new province was to be called East Bengal and Assam with its capital at Dhaka and subsidiary headquarters at Chittagong. It will cover an area of 106. 540 square miles with a population of 31 million, including 18 million Muslims and 12 million Hindus. His administration would consist of a Legislative Council, a board of Revenue of two members, and the jurisdiction of the Calcutta High Court would be left standing. The government has stressed that the new province would have a clearly demarcated western boundary and well defined geographical, ethnological, linguistic and social characteristics. The most striking feature of the new province was that it will focus on its own limits the population of Bengal hitherto ignored and neglected typical homogenous Muslim. Moreover, the entire tea industry (except Darjeeling), and most of the jute growing area would be placed under a single administration. The Indian government has issued a final decision in a resolution dated 19 July 1905 and the partition of Bengal was carried out on October 16 of the same year. MAP SHOWING PARTITON OF BENGAL INDIAN MAP AT THE TIME OF THE PARTITION THE PARTITON : Lord Curzon, Viceroy of India has decided to partition Bengal for administrative purposes, the creation of a new province of East Bengal and Assam, with a population of 31 million and its capital Dhaka. The (Ganges) Brahmaputra and Padma physically defined the first partition of Bengal. East Bengal prospered, Dhaka assumed its former status as capital and Chittagong became an important port Sea. Given below is the proclamation of the partition : Governor general is pleased to establish territories currently under the administration of the Chief Commissioner of Assam for e t re for the Indian Councils Act of 1861 a province the provisions of this Act relating to the e the aboration of laws and e g Parliaments for peace and good order of pr e s idences Fort St. George and Bombay is applicable and direct that the said province shall e t re call e and known as the province of East Bengal and Assam . Governor general in Council is pleased to declare the day of October 1905 as the perioud during which these provisions come into force and 15 as the number of advisors that the Lieutenant Governor may from e s igner for his help in the aboration laws and parliaments. Governor general in Council is further pleased to e c larer and name in the constitution of the said province of East Bengal and Assam, the districts of Dhaka, Mymensingh, Faridpur, Backergunge, Tippera, Noakhali, Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts, Rajashahi, Dinajpur, Jalpaiguri , Rangpur, Bogra, Pabna, and Malda which now form part of the division of Bengal Pr e s idence Fort William cease to be submitted or included within this division, and shall will be submitted and included within the Lieutenant Governor of the Province of East Bengal and Assam. The reason behind the partition which has been officially announced, it is the province of Bengal was too large to be managed by a single governor and was therefore shared the administrative purpose. But the real reason behind the partition was political and not administrative. East Bengal was dominated by Muslims and Hindus in West Bengal. Partition was yet another part of the divide and rule policy. The following excerpts from the letter of February 2, 1905 Curzon St. John Brodrick, Secretary of State for India, give an idea of its objectives in the partition of Bengal Calcutta is the center from which the Congress Party is manipulated throughout Bengal, and even the whole of India. His best shooters son and its most frothy orators all reside here. s Perfection their machines, and the tyranny that allows him to exercise are truly remarkable They dominate public opinion in Calcutta. they affect the High Court, which frighten the local government, and they are sometimes not without serious influence on the Government of India. Their whole activity is directed towards the creation of a powerful organization they may one day be able to force a weak government to give them what they want. Any action accordingly which divide the Bengali-speaking population, which would allow independent centers of activity and influence grow, which would dethrone Calcutta from its place as the center of the plot successful, or would weaken the influence of the lawyer class, who have the entire organization in their hands, is intensely and deeply felt by them. The outcry will be loud and very fierce, but as a native man said: My countrymen always howl until something is settled, then they accept it. The partition of Bengal was the largest in the reign of Lord Curzon event. It was done mainly for reasons of administrative convenience. Bengal at the time was the largest province of India extends to 1, 89, 000 square miles with a population of 80 million. It was composed of Bengal, Behar and Orissa and was under the center of a lieutenant governor. After Lord Curzon took over as Governor General of India the debate on partition started due to the following problems: 1. Vastness of the province: The province was spread on the surface of 1, 89, 000 square miles with a population of 80 million, which was too large to be managed by a Lieutenant Governor. He could not make a turn for the entire province due to its vastness both in its mandate. 2. Limited sources of communication: communication sources in the provinces have been limited due to rivers and forests. The rule of law and order of the provinces was also worse because of the lack of policy and management in-effective. Therefore, the need to partition the province was considered jointly. 3. Unlike the language: There were also differences between languages and civilization native of West Bengal and East Bengal. The natives of West Bengal considered themselves superior in civilization resident of East Bengal. The condition required for the division of provinces. 4. Need of the time: The division of Bengal was the need of time to develop trade in East Bengal and promote the port of Chittagong, which could be done by dividing the provinces. 5. Partition: The partition of Bengal was thus calculated to restore the effectiveness of government and administration on the one hand and encouraged local initiatives for the progress and development of the other. Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal and formed two new provinces of manageable size East and West Bengal. East Bengal consisted of Dhaka Mamansingh, Assam, Kaula, Rangpur and Bogra district, the Dhaka was the capital of East Bengal was a Muslim majority province, while Bihar and Orissa constituted a separate province of be called as West Bengal with the capital of Calcutta and become the Hindu-majority provinces. ACTUAL MOTIVE OF THE PARTITION The main reason for the partition was purely political. Hindus were in a better position in terms of economic status, professional qualifications, etc, as Muslims. During the pre-Sepoy Mutiny, Section Hindu traders greatly helped the British while their Muslim counterparts do not. The British were angry. With the widespread Hindu Western education is a great way, but Muslims could not. A sense of deprivation crept in. Maybe the feeling of deprivation was designed. When discontent grew in the beginning of this century, the British capitalized on this feeling of deprivation. A sense of inferiority was there. The British simply add fuel to the fire. Suddenly, the two communities have become aware of their religious identity. The net result is the partition of Bengal. The trigger score is still healing. But if the administration was only terconnections power structures and governance speakers, Bengali critics of the regime were quick to respond to local, provincial, and every Indian.? Yet, for allthere was no reason for new provinces may not have knowledge of the literature, a crucial restwas carved out of the large, unexplained non Bengali language: namely, the ideological content of basepeople of Orissa and Bihar rather than division nationalism itself, a sense of national solidarityAppropriate Bengal. The real motives behind the govern-against imperialism, political and economic foreign. Ment plan was not difficult to see: first, to divide the force that was contrary to the interests of the population Troublesome Bengalis of Calcutta from the issue of the Indian subcontinent a feeling that Bengalis of eastern districts, and second, to pro-could not be reduced to a catalog of rivalry be- promote the interests, and thus courting the favor of interpolation and Indians vying for government patron large Muslim population of East Bengal as a com-age 3. Even within Marxist historiography, there is hardly a Munal counterweight to the great Hindu majority new observation that the actual content of nationalist Educated middle class that dominated the vivid political ideologies can not simply be inferred from the competition tics of the region} Communalism Communalism plays a key role in the analysis of the true nature of riots between Hindus and Muslimsin Bengal in 1906 and 1907, after an unsuccessful attempt was made by the British Government to divide Bengal in 1905 and also to analyze the subsequent policy developments that led to the founding of the Muslim League in 1906 and Ulti- ron in the partition of India in 1947. To understand the socio-political impact of the partition of Bengal in 1906, firstly im- pressure of communitarianism arouses our attention. Communalism found different interpretations through the ages. But the basic idea remains more or less the same. The term communitarianism .. refers to the tendency of people to perceive their interests as identical to those of their religious group, the tendency to re- gard the values and activities of members of other religious groups foreign or hostile, the trend of religion in determining political affiliation tion, the trend of group conflicts occur between members of different religious communities - John Mclane R (partition of Bengal in 1905: A Political analysis). Even today to scrutinize the problems of discrimination called common India, an account of the most recent term as interpreted in recent times, is important cant. The term is widely used in the Indian context to describe the mutual hostility between communities based on religion - Jaya Chatterjee (BengaI Divided). These definitions are more relevant today when it seems that the people of the land have not learned from their past mistakes and are ready to run into the same difficulty water that their people did in the early 1900s. Relation between Hindus and Muslims in Bengal before 1900 But the scenario is not always the same. Before 1906 conflict between Hindus and Muslims in Bengal was rarely seen in relation to other states of India. There were reports stray incidents of cow-slaughter festivals, religious and social repre- tion of advisory and statutory organizations, education and self-government job, but they remained only small friction, but never caused a large com- internal discord. Muslim society in general before 1906 was a step back, full of discrimination tions between them, divided into classes based on social and economic stand- points. Muslims of the lower classes were despised by elite Muslims and so- Social contact was avoided as much as possible. In retrospect, the Muslim elite had more in common with the wealthy Muslim underclass Hindu upper class. Despite contacts overnight, there was almost no way of integration between Hindus and Muslims. Therefore, ignorance and indifference prevailed. No awareness effort was made by one of the two communities to understand and pathise with sym other mode of life inherent, features and cultures. In addition, the attitudes of many religious and community Hindus Mus- LIMS has no means of communication between the two impossible. Perhaps the greater discrimination lie in the field of government jobs, educational opportunities and agrarian opportunities. Although no obvious hostility was in view for all by- particular person, a general dislike for Muslims still brewed in the spirit of the Hin- due because they were one-time leaders. Stories were heard and spread over Muslim domination and oppression on the one hand, and the Hindu heroic rebellion against them another. Consequently, such a passive hostility is natural. But what was the situation tion, co-existence more or less peaceful between Hindus and Muslims was always assisted in Bengal before partition. Steps to partition Bengal at the time of Lord Curzon was the largest and most populous province not capable of being governed by a single person, or the discs official races. Thus, in 1903, a It has been proposed to separate Chittagong Division and the districts of Dhaka and Mymensingh Bengal and add with the province of Assam. This proposal met with overwhelming opposition from all strata of society, rich land lords and landless poor, political leaders and labor classes and both Hindus and Muslims. The protest meetings, processions, brochures and widely expressed opinion of the general public newspaper articles opposing even the idea of separating people by geographical boundaries. During his tour in East Bengal, Curzon witnessed the peoples solidarity Bengal, the center of nationalism in India. The only way to guarantee the British Regime NEAP was the bud of nationalism and to do this, the sense of solidarity among Bengali people must be crushed. In East Bengal, the Muslim large rear- ity pose no danger to the British as the new privileges granted to them make them loyal to the British government. At the same time, Bengal Bengalis cease to be a majority after that it would be tied with Bihar and Orissa. Cal- cutta, the center of the new nationalism found lose its importance as Bengali Hindus with their advanced political consciousness will be a minority in the new province of Bengal. Thus in 1905, the British decided to redraw the boundaries of Bengal and halved parts: West Bengal, with a population of 54 million, of which $ 42 million would Hindus and 9 million Muslims in Calcutta as its capital, and Bengal and East Assam with a population of 31 million, 18 million are Muslim and 12 million Hindus in Dhaka as their capital. The land must be transferred from Bengal the new province was composed of the districts of Chittagong and Dhaka divisions, those of Rajshahi division except Darjeeling and Malda district. Curzon sent the scheme in London in February 1905. It was sanctioned by the Secretary- silence of State for India, St. John Brodrich in June, and the announcement of the for- tion of the new province was released in July 20, 1905. The province of Bengal LORD CURZON George Curzon was the eldest son of Baron Curzon. It was perhaps the most important British politician in modern times has failed in his quest to become Prime Minister. He was born in 1859 and proved to be a brilliant student. Curzon was an ambitious man who tended to see problems in clear terms. He took strong positions and rarely recognize common ground. He became a force in the Conservative Party and served as Viceroy of India. He introduced reforms angry Lord Kitchner Chief of the British army in India. It was at that time a strong supporter of the Empire and the imperial mission of Great Britain. Interestingly, today it is best known for expanding the Western knowledge of Indian art, archeology and literature. Before and after World War I, he led the fight against womens suffrage, which is part of the reason he never achieved his goal of becoming Prime Minister. George was a brilliant student. He attended the prestigious Eton public (private) school. At Eton College, he won a record number of academic awards. He entered the University of Oxford in 1878. He was elected president of the Oxford Union in 1880 a great honor. Although George did not win first, he was named a Fellow of All Souls College in 1883. The Marquis of Salisbury in November 1891 appointed Curzon as his Secretary of State for India. Curzon lost this position when Earl of Rosebery formed a Liberal government in 1894. The general elections of 1895, the Conservative Party returned to power. Curzon was given the post of Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs. Three years later, the Marquess of Salisbury was granted the title Baron Curzon of Kedleston, and appointed Viceroy of India. Once in India, Curzon introduced a series of reforms sweeping the British civil service and in India. He also angered Lord Kitchener, who had taken command of the Indian Army in 1902. Lord Curzon was one of the largest of the British viceroys. He was a seasoned politician and very young, only 40 at the time of his appointment. He was an energetic and capable. His understanding of Asian business was better than another British government of the time. He understood the Indian problems and answers to most of them. Its purpose was to strengthen the British Empire in India. The reforms were very wide, too popular to assess in detail ant here. Many, such as measures to deal with the plague and protect farmers were of great benefit to the Indians Imperialist until his fingertips Curzon was the hope of rising imperialist wing of the Conservative Party. In his student years as president of the Oxford Union, he earned the doggerel: My name is George Nathaniel Curzon, I am a superior person, My cheek is pink, my hair is smooth, I dine at Blenheim once a week. For a man like Churchill another bird of the same feather, but in a lighter shade, not from conviction, but for convenience which belonged to the same party, Curzon was one of those upper Oxford pedants for that democracy, even the Tory variety, was anathema. . A measure to divide Bengal was very unpopular. It was at that time a strong supporter of the Empire and the imperial mission of Great Britain. Interestingly, today it is best known for expanding the Western knowledge of Indian art, archeology and literature. One of these reforms was to preserve the Indian archaeological treasures. His numerous reforms disrupted many British leaders whose main interest was to maintain the established order with a minimum of local agitation. The new Conservative leader, Arthur Balfour, began to question the judgment of Curzon. Curzon in 1905 was forced out of office. REACTION TO THE PROPOSAL The publication of the original proposals by the end of 1903, had aroused unprecedented opposition, especially among the influential educated middle-class Hindus. The proposed territorial adjustment seemed to touch the existing interest groups and consequently led to fierce opposition. The lawyers of Calcutta apprehended that the creation of a new province would mean the creation of a Court of Appeal in Dhaka and to diminish the importance of their own High Court. Journalists feared the emergence of local newspapers, which would limit the flow of Calcutta Press. The business community of Calcutta visualized the movement of commerce from Calcutta to Chittagong, which is closer, and logically the cheapest port. The Zamindars who owned large estates in both the west and east Bengal foresaw the need to maintain separate institutions in Dhaka which could result in additional costs. Educated Bengali Hindus felt that this was a deliberate blow inflicted by Curzon in the national consciousness and the growing solidarity of the Bengali-speaking population of people. The Hindus of Bengal, which controlled much of the trade in Bengal and the various professions and directed rural society, said that the Bengali nation would be divided, making them a minority in a province, including the whole of Bihar and Orissa. They complained that it was a veiled attempt by Curzon to strangle the spirit of nationalism in Bengal. They firmly believed that it was the main purpose of the Government to encourage the growth of a Muslim power in Eastern Bengal as a counterweight to thwart the rise rapid of the Hindu community educated. Economic, political and community interests together to intensify the opposition to the measure of the partition. The Indian and specially the Bengali press against the decision of the score from the beginning. The British press, the Anglo-Indian press and even some administrators also opposed the proposed measure. The score evokes strong protests in West Bengal, especially in Calcutta and gave a new boost to Indian nationalism. Now, the Indian NATIONAL Congress was destined to become the main platform of the Indian nationalist movement. He exposes the strength and unusual vigor and went from a pressure group of the middle class to a mass nationwide organization. The direction of the Indian national Congress saw the partition as an attempt to divide and rule and as evidence of the vindictive antipathy of the Government towards the bhadralok outspoken intellectuals. Mother Goddess worshipping Hindu Bengali believes that the score reverted to vivisection of their province of the mother .  «Ã‚ » Band-Mataram (Hail Fatherland) almost became the Indian national anthem of the national Congress. Defeat of the partition became the immediate target of bengali nationalism. Agitation against the partition is manifested in the form of mass meetings, rural unrest and a SWADESHI movement to boycott the importation of British manufactured goods. Swadeshi and Boycott were weapons binoculars of this nationalism and Swaraj (independence) its main objective. Swaraj was first mentioned in the presidential speeches of Dadabhai Naoroji as the objective of the Congress session Calcutta in 1906. Leaders like SURENDRANATH BANERJEA and journalists such as Krishna Kumar Mitra, Director of the Sanjivani (13 July 1905) have urged people to boycott British products, observe mourning and breaking contact with official bodies. At a meeting in Calcutta 7 August 1905 (acclaimed as the birth of Indian nationalism) a resolution to refrain from buying British products as long that the partition resolution is not withdrawn has been accepted successfully. This national spirit has been popularized by the patriotic songs of DWIJENDRALAL ROY, RAJANIKANTA SEN and RABINDRANATH TAGORE. Comme with other political movements of the day this also made a religious connotation. S Puja were offered to underline the solemnity of the occasion. The Hindu religious fervour reaches its peak on September 28, 1905, the day of the Mahalaya, the day of new moon before the puja, and thousands of Hindus gathered at the Kali temple in Calcutta. In Bengal, the cult of Kali, Consort of Shiva, had always been very popular. She possessed a two-dimensional character with attributes involved in both generators and destructive. Simultaneously, she took great pleasure in bloody sacrifices, but it was also revered as the great mother associated with the design of the Bengal as the homeland. This design provides a solid foundation for the support of the political objectives stimulated by the religious excitement. Kali has been accepted as a symbol of the homeland, and the priest administers the Swadeshi vow. Such religious flavor could and should give the movement a widespread appeal among the Hindu masses, but at the same time that the flavor has aroused hostility in Muslim minds average. Gatherings of huge protest before and after the division of Bengal on October 16, 1905 has attracted millions of people previously not involved in politics. The Swadeshi movement as an economic movement would have been perfectly acceptable for Muslims, but the movement has been used as a weapon against the partition (of which the largest body of made Muslims support) and as he often had a religious colouring added, he antagonized the Muslim minds The new tide of national sentiment against the Partition of Bengal originating in Bengal spilled over into different regions in India Punjab, Central Provinces, Poona, Madras, Bombay and other cities. Instead of wearing foreign made outfits, the Indians vowed to use only swadeshi (indigenous) cottons and other clothing materials made in India. Foreign garments were viewed as hateful imports. The Swadeshi Movement soon stimulated local enterprise in many areas; from Indian cotton mills to match factories, glassblowing shops, iron and steel foundries. The agitation also generated increased demands for nat